The Book of the Tales of Canterbury: A Critical Edition

Peter Robinson and Barbara Bordalejo announced the publication of their digital critical edition of some of Chaucer's (apparently wrongly named) Canterbury Tales. While the relevance for OTTC might not be obvious, a quick look at their edition might help give a little bit of vision of what an excellent digital edition of the Hebrew Bible text could look like in the 21st century. Robinson and Bordalejo have been at the forefront of developing tools and standards in the field, and they have been working on Canterbury Tales for many years. Their tools are in many ways similar to and in fact developed in relation to the Virtual Manuscript Room with which we are working to produce the Digital Critical Edition of the Hebrew Psalter. Congratulations to the editors for this great accomplishment, and I hope that scholars in our field will also catch the vision of what could be.

The Scrolls of the Torah

I just learned of the publication of a new Mohr Siebeck volume that is quite relevant here:

The Scrolls of the Torah: Material, Compositional and Interpretive Perspectives

Edited by Jan Christian Gertz, Julia Rhyder, Thomas Römer and Konrad Schmid

The volume is a well-deserved Festschrift honoring David Carr for his work on the "scroll approach" to the composition of the Pentateuch, which takes seriously the material book culture context of its formation and interpretation. Congratulations, David, on this special occasion!

Does God Hate Divorce? Malachi 2:16

I recently heard an interesting discussion about the contested text and meaning of the (in)famous Malachi 2:16 reading that "God hates divorce," so I wanted to take a closer look. 

כִּֽי־שָׂנֵ֣א שַׁלַּ֗ח אָמַ֤ר יְהוָה֙ אֱלֹהֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל וְכִסָּ֤ה חָמָס֙ עַל־לְבוּשׁ֔וֹ אָמַ֖ר יְהוָ֣ה צְבָא֑וֹת וְנִשְׁמַרְתֶּ֥ם בְּרוּחֲכֶ֖ם וְלֹ֥א תִבְגֹּֽדוּ׃

For I hate (Cn: Heb he hates) divorce, says the LORD, the God of Israel, and covering one’s garment with violence, says the LORD of hosts. So take heed to yourselves and do not be faithless. (NRSV)

כִּֽי־שָׂנֵ֣א שַׁלַּ֗ח MT ] כי אם שנתה שלח DSS-4Q76 ἀλλὰ ἐὰν μισήσας ἐξαποστείλῃς LXX cum odio habueris dimite V אֲרֵי אִם סְנֵית/סְנֵיתָ/סני את) לַה פַטרַה) T | > S | prb l שׂנאתִי BHS.

In this case, the MT is somewhat unclear and ambiguous. The verb seems to be third person and could perhaps be read as "he hates divorcing" (with God as implied subject) or even "he hates (and) divorces" (with the faithless one as implied subject). But in the grammatical context, there is no obvious third person masculine antecedent. The faithless one is addressed in the second person in the previous verse, but if this clause is quoted divine speech ("says the LORD"), we would probably expect the first person if God were the subject.

Because of the awkwardness of the MT, some have emended to שׂנאתִי (with BHS) to smooth out the grammar, yielding "I hate divorcing" (with God as subject). Alternatively, others have read the verb as a participle with implied first person pronoun, yielding "(I) am hating divorcing," with similar meaning. The Syriac Peshitta apparently just omitted the whole problematic text, which probably attests to the difficulty already in antiquity, long before our earliest Masoretic manuscripts. 

A serious textual alternative comes from the common second person reading of 4Q76 (4QXIIa), the LXX, Vulgate, and Targum Jonathan. The Hebrew grammar of 4Q76 is still awkward, but the idea can perhaps be rendered roughly as "if you hate (her), divorcing (her)" or "if you hate (her), (and you) divorce (her)" (faithless as subject). The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible translates it, "For if you hate and divorce." The LXX and Vulgate understand the text in the same way, with both verbs understood as something the faithless one is doing. NETS reads, "But if, since you hate her, you should send her away." The Targum situation is a bit complicated by the lack of a good critical edition, but seems to support the second person tradition of reading. Of the three variants I noted from the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon entry and Safaria, סְנֵיתָ and סני את are unambiguously second person "you hate." The reading סְנֵית could potentially be read as "I hate" or "you hate," depending on the dialect (I'd have to look into the grammar of Targum Jonathan more closely).

The agreement of all of these witnesses against MT is indeed impressive, but I admit I am very skeptical. It is easy for me to see how the second person readings could arise as exegetical clarifications of a difficult, ambiguous text. But it is very difficult for me to imagine anyone creating the MT text from the second person readings. Omission of אם seems less likely than grammatical facilitation. The reading שנתה also reflects a common, non-etymological orthography that is highly suspect. I suppose א and ת were easily confused in the old Hebrew script, but I'm still dubious that the MT can be derived reasonably from the other reading. It is worth pointing out that the LXX also translates the awkward third person jussive in וּבְאֵ֥שֶׁת נְעוּרֶ֖יךָ אַל־יִבְגֹּֽד "and against the wife of your youth let him not deal treacherously" at the end of v. 15 with the second person ἐγκαταλίπῃς, showing that the problem of referent actually starts in v. 15 and is clarified throughout by the LXX. Similarly, BHQ reads "The difficulty perceived in M is its apparent inconsistency with the provision for divorce in Deut 24:1. 4QXIIa follows the same tradition of Jewish exegesis as reflected in T (so also G and V), while S adopts the simpler expedient of omission." It is worth pointing out that both T and V use imperatives meaning, "if you hate (her), divorce her!" I'm not really convinced of that reading, as I don't think it fits the context and the third person forms elsewhere in the verse. But perhaps this too could be a rhetorical challenge, more than a literal command to divorce the wives.

If we reject the second person "you hate" reading as exegetical, the question remains what to do with the earlier MT. As I see it now, it doesn't make much sense to render it with God as the subject, because the grammar of the third person self-reference would be highly awkward: "(God) hates divorcing, says the LORD". On the other hand, the third person reference to the faithless one as subject shows good continuation from v. 15 (where the faithless one is commanded indirectly in the third person not to betray his wife), and the collocation of the terms שנא and שלח are more naturally read as the normal process of despising and divorcing one's wife (cf. Deut 24:3, where the two terms are used in the same order). The real problem is why the final part of verse 15 וּבְאֵ֥שֶׁת נְעוּרֶ֖יךָ אַל־יִבְגֹּֽד shifts person reference mid-clause. But Mal 2:16 itself doesn't seem that problematic to me, even if grammatically a bit awkward.

So does God hate divorce? Probably... I can't imagine any divorce is ever completely untainted by at least one party's sin, even if it's the least bad option available. But does Mal 2:16 explicitly state that? Probably not, at least in an absolute sense. Whether we follow the MT or the second person interpretive reading, the exegetical tradition and most plausible reading of the text seems resoundingly in favor of interpreting this(/these) act(s) of hating and divorcing as something the unfaithful one is doing (or at least potentially doing). That said, if the unfaithful ones who divorce their wives are said to betray them and wrap themselves with violence, it still seems pretty clear that God is no fan of unjust divorce. 

New NEH Grants

The NEH has announced many new grants, including the following that I selected that seemed particularly relevant here. Congratulations to all the winners, and good luck on these interesting projects!

New Haven

Yale University Outright: $20,000

[Collaborative Research]

Project Director: Jacqueline Vayntrub

Project Title: The Lasting Impact of Martin Luther’s Anti-Judaism on Biblical Studies

Project Description: Planning and hosting an international workshop exploring the

impact of German theologian Martin Luther’s anti-Judaism on biblical scholarship,

from the 15th century to the modern era.

Atlanta

Georgia Tech Research Corporation Outright: $25,000

[Collaborative Research]

Project Director: David Citrin

Project Title: NEH-BSF: Revealing Hidden Texts of Manuscript Fragments in

Medieval Spanish Book Bindings Using Terahertz Imaging

Project Description: Planning a project to use new technology to access fragments of

Jewish texts hidden in medieval manuscripts.

Cambridge

Harvard University Outright: $23,249

[Collaborative Research]

Project Director: Vladimir Olivero

Project Title: NEH-BSF: A New Comprehensive Grammar of Late Biblical Hebrew

Project Description: Planning the development of an updated grammar of Late

Biblical Hebrew (587– 200 BCE).

Princeton

Princeton University Outright: $300,000

[Scholarly Editions and Translations]

Project Director: Eve Krakowski

Project Title: NEH-BSF: Living with Death in Medieval Egypt: Editions and

Translations of a Cairo Geniza corpus

Project Description: Preparation for print and digital translation of a collection of

medieval Jewish documents about death, from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Judeo-Arabic.

Raleigh

North Carolina State University Outright: $244,367

[Collaborative Research]

Project Director: Timothy Stinson

Project Title: Mysterious Manor Court Rolls: Unlocking Agricultural and Health

Secrets through the DNA-based Analysis of Parchment Skins

Project Description: Research and writing leading to articles on parchment

production, agricultural practices, and the emergence of disease in medieval and

early modern England as revealed through textual and DNA analysis of public

documents (ca. 1300–1799).

Transformations in Translation: Comparing Qumran Aramaic Job and Old Greek Job

I just saw a new book out by SBL Press that looks like a fascinating contribution:

Transformations in Translation: Comparing Qumran Aramaic Job and Old Greek Job

by Alun Morton Thomas

Blurb from the SBL website:

Using insights gleaned from translation studies, Alun Morton Thomas compares the earliest known Aramaic and Greek translations of the book of Job to explore how translators dealt with idiomatic and linguistic difficulties in translating the Hebrew text. Thomas demonstrates that many of the scribal techniques used in both the Qumran and Old Greek versions of Job resemble practices attested in other Second Temple Jewish texts. The scribal choices Thomas reveals provide insights into early interpretations of the book of Job which stem from the Second Temple period. The volume also delves into how earlier Aramaic and Greek translations relate to later translation attempts in these two languages. Transformations in Translation is a critical resource for scholars and students interested in some of the most difficult passages to translate from Hebrew.

Alun Morton Thomas completed his doctoral studies at Trinity College Dublin, where he was awarded a DAAD fellowship to conduct part of the research for this project at the University of Göttingen. He is currently a pastor in North Wales.

Etnachta and Masoretica

Idan Dershowitz has published two different online resources for the study of the Bible:

1. Etnachta (https://www.etnachta.org/) - A site that facilitates study and searching of the Masoretic accents. I haven't poked around much with this one yet.
2. Masoretica (https://www.masoretica.org/) - This site allows you to look up a verse in a number of manuscripts (Hebrew--Masoretic and Samaritan--and Greek). It's a great tool for easily looking up images of manuscripts for a particular verse.

HT Joshua Alfaro 

Masoretic Notes to Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah

David Marcus has published two volumes transcribing, translating, and annotating the Masoretic notes in the Leningrad Codex to the books of Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah. I haven't had a chance to look at them yet, but it sounds like they should be a great resource for students and scholars looking to gain more familiarity with the Masorah.

ERC Advanced Grants

I just learned of two new ERC Advanced Grants that are relevant here:

Mladen Popović (University of Groningen), "Tracing Scribes and Scrolls." This project aims to use analytical chemistry, artificial intelligence, and palaeography to determine where the Dead Sea Scrolls were produced.

Hugh Houghton (University of Birmingham), "Exegetical Manuscripts and the Greek New Testament." This project aims to study a number of commentaries on the New Testament as new evidence for the text of the Bible.

Congratulations both Mladen and Hugh for these well-earned awards, and good luck on accomplishing these challenging aims!

Vesuvius Challenge Results

In the news recently, scholars have succeeded in virtually unrolling and reading 20 columns of a scroll from Herculaneum. This technology has been developing rapidly over the past few years, and this is the biggest success to date.

AJR on Working with Manuscripts

Ancient Jew Review has a two-part review series on Liv Ingeborg Lied and Brent Nongbri's new book on Working with Manuscripts. I haven't read it yet, but it sounds like exactly the kind of practical advice I would have liked to have had when I first started working with manuscripts. If you're interested in learning more about working with actual manuscripts, check it out!

Jeremy Smoak on the Ketef Hinnom Silver Amulets

Jeremy Smoak writes for theTorah.com an interesting article on the apotropaic (protective magic) background of the silver amulets from Ketef Hinnom that preserve a version of the priestly blessing with slight differences from Numbers 6.

Marc Michaels on Reconstructing the "Serifed Scroll"

Marc Michaels has produced an interesting Genizah Fragments article on the reconstruction of the famed "serifed scroll," which is likely the oldest Torah scroll in the Genizah collection. Several fragments of this scroll have been preserved, giving us a good opportunity to work on reconstructing the scroll. Marc, a skilled scribe and graphic designer, has done a beautiful job creating a font to imitate the distinctive handwriting of the scroll and reconstruct the missing pieces. While I have often pushed back on the scientific accuracy of these kinds of reconstructions (they sometimes can generate higher subjective levels of confidence that are really warranted), I do find them to be illustrative, probative, and aesthetically pleasing. Congratulations to Marc on the nice article!

WebApp for Estimating Scroll Dimensions

David Carr has produced a free web app for estimating the dimensions of scrolls. It allows you to fetch biblical texts and strip them to the consonantal bare bones for help with calculations. By inputting measured data for the text density, you can then estimate scroll length and surface area. I have played around with it a bit, and it looks like it will be a rather useful tool. His methods of measurement and calculation are slightly different from how I have done it in the past, but in principle should yield pretty much the same results when accounting for measurement error.

Proverbs and Amenemope

Bernd Schipper has posted a fascinating article on Proverbs' use of the Wisdom of Amenemope, arguing that the author was familiar with the Egyptian practice of studying wisdom texts over extended periods of time and focusing on the incipit verses of chapters. According to Schipper, Proverbs primarily uses these incipit verses and frames them with terms of chronological sequence that fit an Egyptian scribal context.

Tov on the Original Text of the Torah

Emanuel Tov has published a nice piece on what we can know about the archetype and/or original text of the Torah from the manuscript witnesses.

Quranic Textual Scholarship

There is a fascinating recent interview with Hythem Sidky on the current state of textual scholarship on the Quran that might be of interest both for its historical significance and methodological parallels with discussions in biblical textual criticism. Sidky argues that there were multiple reading traditions in interaction with a controlling written textual tradition from earliest times. Prior to the Uthmanic standardization of the tradition, we have little manuscript insight into what might have happened, though the undertext of the Sanaa palimpsest sheds some light on alternative versions of Mohammed's companions, which includes different sequences of Surahs and a higher degree of variation (though still restrained and relatively mundane) than in the later manuscripts. The discussion of the interrelationship between oral and written are particularly interesting for biblical scholarship.

Cook, The Targum of Psalms

Edward Cook has revised his 2001 translation of the Psalms Targum.

Aramaic Literature from Egypt and the Levant

Tawny Holm has published a useful anthology of Aramaic literature with English translations. She has done a lot of work recently on P. Amherst 63, an Aramaic psalm collection in Demotic script, so I'm sure she will have lots of helpful observations.

Multispectral Gaze: New Approaches to the Cotton Genesis

Medieval Art Research reports of a forthcoming conference on June 19 at the British Library. The Cotton Genesis is a fascinating example of a beautifully illuminated Septuagint manuscript that is of immense importance for art history, Greek paleography, and the history of the Greek text of the Bible.

From the conference website:

The Cotton Genesis (British Library, Cotton MS Otho B VI) is one of the greatest works of manuscript art to survive from late Antiquity and one of the most tragic casualties of the Cotton Library fire of 1731. New multispectral imaging completed at the British Library and sponsored by the Gina Goldhammer Foundation, has opened exciting opportunities for major breakthroughs in the study of this late-fifth-century artwork. Parts of the texts and illuminations of the Cotton Genesis, damaged in the fire and barely visible to the naked eye, can now be seen through a set of ultraviolet, infrared, and visible light images.

The interdisciplinary conference Multispectral Gaze: New Approaches to the Cotton Genesis aims to celebrate the completion of the digitisation campaign and the discoveries it can generate. By drawing on the manuscript’s multispectral images, leading specialists on late antique book production, art, palaeography, and collection history will provide new insights on the Cotton Genesis.

Program

9.30 – 10.00: Registration

10.00 – 10.10: Introduction

Elena Lichmanova and Emanuel Zingg

10.10 – 11.40: The Cotton Genesis in the Early Modern Period

Chair: Andrea Clarke, British Library

Tom Roebuck, University of East Anglia

The Cotton Genesis in Early Modern English Scholarship

Julian Harrison, British Library

Picture This: Early Reproductions of the Cotton Genesis

Raphaëlle Goyeau, British Library / University of East Anglia

The Lost Cottonian Binding of the Cotton Genesis

11.40 – 12.00 Coffee break

12.00 – 13.00 Text and Palaeography

Chair: Peter Tóth, Bodleian Library

Emanuel Zingg, CNRS, Sorbonne University

The Cotton Genesis’ Place in the History of Greek Palaeography

Reinhart Ceulemans, KU Leuven

The Biblical Text of the Cotton Genesis

13.00 – 14.00 Lunch break

14.00 – 15.30 Art of the Cotton Genesis

Chair: Scot McKendrick, British Library (retired)

Jaś Elsner, University of Oxford

The Cotton Genesis and Early Christian Art

Anne-Orange Poilpré, Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University

Visualizing Genesis: Image, Narrativity and Sacrality in the Early Middle Ages

Nancy Thebaut, University of Oxford

Looking Back at Lot in the Cotton Genesis

15.30 – 16.00 Coffee break

16.00 – 16.45 Key-note Lecture – Coactive Scrutiny: What the Cotton Genesis’ Vulgata Tituli Divulge about the San Marco Mosaics

Herbert Kessler, Johns Hopkins University

16.45 – 17.30 Drinks reception

Organisers:

Andrea Clarke (British Library), Elena Lichmanova (British Library), Emanuel Zingg (CNRS, Sorbonne University)

1,000,000 Views

I just noticed that this blog surpassed 1,000,000 total views last month! I am astounded at how much interest the rather arcane topic of Old Testament Textual Criticism has maintained over the 15 years that I have run this blog. As strange as it may sound, the texts and manuscripts of the Old Testament are a fascinating field of study with an appeal even outside the halls of academia. I haven't posted much original research here, but rather used it as a platform to keep up on current developments in the field and to keep track of useful online resources that I want to be able to find easily. The most popular page/post by far has been my list of Online Digital Manuscripts and Images, with nearly 50,000 views. A huge thanks to those who regularly check in on the blog, and I am happy that others find these resources as useful as I do.

DNA and Codicology

Scientific American has an interesting article on developments in the study of DNA in relation to manuscripts and codicology: How DNA forensics is transforming studies of ancient manuscripts.

T'OMIM: Tanakh Observable Matches of Intertextual Mimesis

David Smiley has archived his T'OMIM: Tanakh Observable Matches of Intertextual Mimesis database on Zenodo. He provided the following description via Agade:

_______________________________________

A new dataset is now available that may be of interest to anyone working on inner-biblical allusion, synoptic parallels, or intertextuality more broadly. T'OMIM (תאומים, "twins" in Hebrew) is an open-access collection of labeled parallel passages in the Hebrew Bible, hosted on Zenodo.

Scholars have been cataloging parallelism and intertextual relationships since antiquity. But none of that accumulated work has existed until now in a structured, machine-readable format. T'OMIM was built to fill that gap.

The dataset pairs two corpora of known parallels. The first contains 554 narrative verse pairs drawn from the Chronicles synoptic tradition. The second contains 256 poetic half-verse pairs identified in the biblical parallelism literature. Both corpora are available at two levels of granularity: verse-level paired texts with source citations, and word-level tokens that carry the full ETCBC morphological annotation (part of speech, verbal stem, gender, number, person, lexeme, English gloss, and syntactic structure). Every word in every parallel passage is fully parsed.

For those working computationally, the word-level data can feed directly into natural language processing workflows. For scholars approaching these texts without a programming background, the verse-level files are structured as simple tabular data and can be opened in Excel or any spreadsheet application. Each row is a pair of passages, with columns for the source reference, the text, and the scholarly citation from which the parallel was drawn.

British Library Papyri Images

In 2023, the British Library suffered a cyber attack and has not been able to recover their site. Thankfully, Hugh Cayless just brought to my attention that all of the images as they appeared on the website in June 2021 have now been compiled and made available on Archive.org (also for download). This is a great resource for those trying to find images of BL papyri and ostraca. It's a bit difficult to navigate, but if you know the number of what you are looking for you, you can try to change the URL to bring it up. 

Scriptural Vitality Book Panel

The Oxford Interfaith Forum has posted a video recording of a book panel reviewing Hindy Najman's new book on Scriptural Vitality.

Digital Edition of the Cairo Codex of the Prophets

Elvira Martín-Contreras has put up a great website for a digital edition of the Cairo Codex of the Prophets. It has often been thought to be one of the earliest Masoretic manuscripts based on its early colophon, though this may actually be a colophon copied by a later scribe, rather than the original. 

RIP Takamitsu Muraoka

Martin F. J. Baasten has announced on Agade the sad news that Japanese Semitist Takamitsu Muraoka passed away yesterday. He will be remembered for his immense impact on the study of the Semitic languages and lexicography, providing critical resources and tools that remain standard reference materials in the field.

Urtext and Variance: The Quest for the Texts of the Hebrew Bible

See the new book out with several interesting chapters on text-critical theory and practice.

_________________________

Urtext and Variance: The Quest for the Texts of the Hebrew Bible

SERIES:

Contributions to Biblical Exegesis & Theology, 122

EDITORS:

Rey F.M., Schorch S., Robert-Hayek S.

SUMMARY:

Focusing at “Urtext”, “Variance” and further fundamental concepts of the textual history of the Hebrew Bible, the thirteen chapters collected in this volume provide analyses of their heuristic potential, methodological problems, and implications, proceeding from evidence emerging from a wide range of Biblical texts and textual witnesses.